Friday, February 18, 2011

Matching and Learning.

MATCHING:So far, we have seen the process of using search to solve problems as the application of appropriate rules to individual problem states to generate new states to which the rules can then be applied, and so forth, until a solution is found. Clever search involves choosing from among the rules that can be applied at a particular point, the ones that are most likely to lead to a solution. We need to extract from the entire collection of rules, those that can be applied at a given point. To do so requires some kind of matching between the current state and the preconditions of the rules.

How should this be done?

One way to select applicable rules is to do a simple search through all the rules comparing one’s preconditions to the current state and extracting all the ones that match . this requires indexing of all the rules. But there are two problems with this simple solutions:

A. It requires the use of a large number of rules. Scanning through all of them would be hopelessly inefficeint.

B. It is not always immediately obvious whether a rule’s preconditions are satisfied by a particular state.

Sometimes , instead of searching through the rules, we can use the current state as an index into the rules and select the matching ones immediately. In spite of limitations, indexing in some form is very important in the efficient operation of rules based systems.

A more complex matching is required when the preconditions of rule specify required properties that are not stated explicitly in the description of the current state. In this case, a separate set of rules must be used to describe how some properties can be inferred from others. An even more complex matching process is required if rules should be applied and if their pre condition approximately match the current situation. This is often the case in situations involving physical descriptions of the world.

LEARNING

Learning is the improvement of performance with experience over time.

Learning element is the portion of a learning AI system that decides how to modify the performance element and implements those modifications.

We all learn new knowledge through different methods, depending on the type of material to be learned, the amount of relevant knowledge we already possess, and the environment in which the learning takes place. There are five methods of learning . They are,

1. Memorization (rote learning)

2. Direct instruction (by being told)

3. Analogy

4. Induction

5. Deduction

Learning by memorizations is the simplest from of le4arning. It requires the least amount of inference and is accomplished by simply copying the knowledge in the same form that it will be used directly into the knowledge base.

Example:- Memorizing multiplication tables, formulate , etc.

Direct instruction is a complex form of learning. This type of learning requires more inference than role learning since the knowledge must be transformed into an operational form before learning when a teacher presents a number of facts directly to us in a well organized manner.

Analogical learning is the process of learning a new concept or solution through the use of similar known concepts or solutions. We use this type of learning when solving problems on an exam where previously learned examples serve as a guide or when make frequent use of analogical learning. This form of learning requires still more inferring than either of the previous forms. Since difficult transformations must be made between the known and unknown situations.

Learning by induction is also one that is used frequently by humans . it is a powerful form of learning like analogical learning which also require s more inferring than the first two methods. This learning re quires the use of inductive inference, a form of invalid but useful inference. We use inductive learning of instances of examples of the concept. For example we learn the

concepts of color or sweet taste after experiencing the sensations associated with several examples of colored objects or sweet foods.

Deductive learning is accomplished through a sequence of deductive inference steps using known facts. From the known facts, new facts or relationships are logically derived. Deductive learning usually requires more inference than the other methods.

Review Questions:-

1. what is perception ?

2. How do we overcome the Perceptual Problems?

3. Explain in detail the constraint satisfaction waltz algorithm?

4. What is learning ?

5. What is Learning element ?

6. List and explain the methods of learning?

Types of learning:- Classification or taxonomy of learning types serves as a guide in studying or comparing a differences among them. One can develop learning taxonomies based on the type of knowledge representation used (predicate calculus , rules, frames), the type of knowledge learned (concepts, game playing, problem solving), or by the area of application(medical diagnosis , scheduling , prediction and so on).

The classification is intuitively more appealing and is one which has become popular among machine learning researchers . it is independent of the knowledge domain and the representation scheme is used. It is based on the type of inference strategy employed or the methods used in the learning process. The five different learning methods under this taxonomy are:

Memorization (rote learning)

Direct instruction(by being told)

Analogy

Induction

Deduction

Learning by memorization is the simplest form of learning. It requires the least5 amount of inference and is accomplished by simply copying the knowledge in the same form that it will be used directly into the knowledge base. We use this type of learning when we memorize multiplication tables ,

for example.

A slightly more complex form of learning is by direct instruction. This type of learning requires more understanding and inference than role learning since the knowledge must be transformed into an operational form before being integrated into the knowledge base. We use this type of learning when a teacher presents a number of facts directly to us in a well organized manner.

The third type listed, analogical learning, is the process of learning an ew concept or solution through the use of similar known concepts or solutions. We use this type of learning when solving problems on an examination where previously learned examples serve as a guide or when we learn to drive a truck using our knowledge of car driving. We make frewuence use of analogical learning. This form of learning requires still more inferring than either of the previous forms, since difficult transformations must be made between the known and unknown situations. This is a kind of application of knowledge in a new situation.

The fourth type of learning is also one that is used frequency by humans. It is a powerful form of learning which, like analogical learning, also requires more inferring than the first two methods. This form of learning requires the use of inductive inference, a form of invalid but useful inference. We use inductive learning when wed formulate a general concept after seeing a number of instance or examples of the concept. For example, we learn the concepts of color sweet taste after experiencing the sensation associated with several examples of colored objects or sweet foods.

The final type of acquisition is deductive learning. It is accomplished through a sequence of deductive inference steps using known facts. From the known facts, new facts or relationships are logically derived. Deductive learning usually requires more inference than the other methods. The inference method used is, of course , a deductive type, which is a valid from of inference.

In addition to the above classification, we will sometimes refer to learning methods as wither methods or knowledge-rich methods. Weak methods are general purpose methods in which little or no initial knowledge is available. These methods are more mechanical than the classical AI knowledge – rich methods. They often rely on a form of heuristics search in the learning process.

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